Information in Organisation
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Introduction
Information management is practised in organisations. Yet information is used by individuals in those organisations. The counterpoint between the organisation and its individual members has particular relevance to information management because of its responsibilities to both the organisation at one level and to individuals at another level. This counterpoint means that we need to consider both the organisation and its members in information terms as a starting point for developing strategies for effective information management in small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs). The purpose of the paper is to develop some general guidelines for effective information management. There are three major topics:
information and organisations
information and managers
information management in SMEs
SMEs, according to the standard EU definition, employ no more than 249 people, have less than 40 million ECU turnover and no more than 25 percent ownership or control by one or more enterprises which are not SMEs.
Information and organisations
This discussion of organisations and information has two parts to it. The first provides an overview of organisations by examining a number of images used to describe them and then drawing some implications for information management. The second outlines a hierarchy of definitions of information which are appropriate for organisations and draws further implications for information management. The discussion concludes with a set of propositions about information management.
Images of organisations
Machines, organisms, political systems and cultures (Morgan, 1986): these are familiar and conventional images of organisations. To these can be added a fifth image which has emerged in the past decade or so: learner (Senge, 1990). Each image represents a perspective on the nature of organisations. For example the machine image suggests that information is one of the resources that keeps the wheels ticking over and the task of information management is to ensure that information is delivered where and when it is needed through clearly defined and understood communication channels. The organism image implies that information from internal and external sources is required to keep the organisation in a state of equilibrium. Information management has a critical role in drawing in information about trends and developments in the external environment so that the organisation can respond to changes triggered by social, economic, technological and legislative forces.
The image of the political system recognises quite properly that because different groups in organisations have different interests they will need and use information differently in the exercise of power and influence, in the seeking of support and negotiating conflict. The image is a reminder of the political and social context of information management and draws attention to the ethics of information management practice. The image of the organisation as culture is particularly powerful with its suggestions of shared beliefs, values, norms and meaning and its emphasis on ritual, myth, language and symbol. It suggests that the use of information in an organisation will have cultural aspects to it, in contrast to the assumption that the use of information is essentially a rational human activity. Information management has a clear role in making meaning and will embody through its practice, the beliefs and values of the organisations.
The image of the organisation as learner suggests a community which regenerates itself through the creation of knowledge, the outcome of learning. Information management needs to ensure that the organisation has the information and information capabilities necessary to continuously adapt to its changing internal and external environments. It does this by adopting a forward-looking approach and by adapting itself to the ambiguity and uncertainties found in these environments. We need to remind ourselves that the image of the organisation as a learner is an emerging one which is still posing questions to some organisation theorists (Spender, 1996; Grant, 1996).
Although none of these five images is by itself an adequate representation, together they highlight the complexity of organisations and the processes which sustain them. It is this complexity which is part of the context of information management in organisations and informs information management practice.
What are some implications for information management that emerge from these images of organisations?
Information management has the potential to contribute to the achievements of organisations
Information management has different purposes in different organisations. These purposes will be influenced by the organisations goals as well as by its culture and its stance on information.
Information management is practised in a political, social and cultural context which shapes both what information management does and how it does it.
Information management practice is value laden and so it has an ethical dimension. The ethics of information management practice are most often implicit.
Organisational learning concepts and theory are applicable to information management in some organisations. Not all organisations are ready for this development, nor is it an appropriate direction for all organisations.
Some definitions of information
Organisations are increasingly aware of the potential of information in providing competitive advantage and sustaining their success (Porter, 1985) as evidenced in a number of published case studies (Owens, et al., 1996; Grimshaw, 1995) and commentaries (Broadbent, 1977). The descriptions of information as an asset and a resource (Burk & Horton, 1988; Best, 1996) are no longer unusual. However, the origin of these descriptions in classical economics ignores the place of information in the fabric of a political system or culture of an organisation. If information is to provide competitive advantage then its full potential needs to be considered.
A very useful hierarchy of definitions of information (Braman, 1989) has been developed in the area of information policy studies. The hierarchy is applicable to organisations for a number of reasons; firstly, it recognises the qualitative differences among definitions of information; secondly, its macro view is more appropriate to organisations than definitions based only on the individual as an information user; thirdly, it provides a range