Ethology: A Study in Animal Behavior and the Complexity of Their Action
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Ethology: A Study in Animal Behavior and the
Complexity of Their Action
A Study in Animal Behavior
Hierarchy Among Animal Species
Ethology, the study of animal behavior is still a new frontier for scientists (Freedman, 1970). Ethology, a combination of evolution, ecology, physiology, genetics and psychology, has just come about within the last two decades (Raven, 1999). Animals are a vital component in the history of the world. For instance, the Bible mentions some 100 kinds of animals. In this modern age some Hindus still worship snakes and bulls as incarnations of divine beings (Carmichael, 1972).
Humans have been intrigued for years at how the most basic creatures can do the most complex tasks, such as finding a home, weaving a web or sing a song with little or no instruction (Encarta, 2000). Animal behavior, one of the most important properties of animal life, is the part of a particular organism and its environment. The role of animal behavior plays a critical role in biological adaptations. Animal behavior also gives some of the first warning signs of environmental disruption (Snowdon, 2001).
The human body and other mammals share many similarities, such as anatomical structure, from cells to vital organs. Human refusal to accept their psychological kinship to animals is blamed on our inadequate understanding of animal behavior (Carmichael, 1972). The methodology used to study animal behavior has had a significant impact in the psychology world (Snowdon, 2001). In many ways humans are still much more advanced and sophisticated than animals but the comparison of humans to animals still remains controversial (Slater, 1987).
Aggressive Behavior
A decent portion of animal behavior concerns the resolution of conflicts (Slater, 1987). Peace will occur in groups of animals will remain as long as a subordinate stays submissive. A submissive animal will often groom a dominant animal, as a soothing action and a way to build trust. This is also evident in the petting of domestic animals by their owners (Benyus, 1998). Cats change their posture as a show of submission to de-escalate the confrontation (Slater, 1987). Jamaican anoles extend their bright-orange dewlap to demonstrate their aggression (Miller, 2000).
Animals “play” to establish dominance between animals. It also helps create alliances that will be of use in future instances. There are six ways that animals avoid conflict. They keep their distance from other group members. They make excuses for being close, such as greeting, playing or grooming. Animals avoid causing extreme arousal or frustration. They make displays of submission. Animals behave predictably; not arousing fear or aggression. They divert their attack elsewhere by taking out frustrations on an inanimate object instead of an equally dominant member of the group. “For all practical purposes, animals are diplomats, not warriors. They will go to great lengths to avoid a physical confrontation, and acts of extreme or fatal violence are rare” (Benyus, 1998).
Sexual Behavior
Sexual Behavior was being researched as early as 1913, by a German biologist, Johann Regen. Regen studied the chirps of a male European field cricket. He found, in conclusion that female crickets respond only to the chirps and trills of males of their own species (Alexander, 1972).
Courtship behavior describes the behavioral interactions before and after mating between males and females. In most cases the male is the more active partner in the act of courtship and females tend to be more cautious about who they mate with (Slater, 1987). Mammals are more likely than birds to practice promiscuity or polygamy (Crook, 1972). Cats are particularly violent in the acts of courtship. Actually, modern courtship is becoming non-existent in some species, with commercial breeding and an increased use of artificial insemination (Holt, 2001).
First, the male lion makes his intentions known with a “mating grimace”. In the mating grimace the male exposes his teeth and rolls his head from side to side silently. His actions are similar to that of the defensive snarl (Benyus, 1998). Some sexual signals however are not quite as physical. For example, bird songs, cricket calls or firefly flashes (Alexander, 1972).
If the lion female doesnt immediately crouch down into the mating posture she will engage in a mating chase in which she leads the male around with her tail looped high. When she is ready to mate she crouches into the presenting posture she lowers her forequarters and elevates her hindquarters. Females solicit the males by circling him, rubbing against him or crouching in front of him. Females actually initiate courtship in 57% of the cases studied (Benyus, 1998).
Female lions come into heat every three to four weeks. The first male that approaches her while she is in heat becomes her temporary consort. Usually other males dont challenge him. On average the female lion will mate every 15 minutes while shes in heat. In one study a specific male mated with the same female 157 times in a 55-hour period. The male is more promiscuous than the female because he has less of an “investment” in his offspring (Benyus, 1998). The term “parental investment” is used to describe the contributions of each parent (Raven, 1999). His mind possesses a “quantity over quality” standpoint. About 95% of male mammal species are non-monogamous (Benyus, 1998).
Throughout copulation the male forces a light neck bite on the female, while she growls and displays an aggressive threat expression. The male meows during copulation and wears the defensive threat expression. He lets out a long drawn out “yowl” during ejaculation (Benyus, 1998).
Another demonstration of active courtship can be found in giraffes. Bull giraffes are known to rub the neck of a female as an act of courtship. Some species of large slugs have a long, complicated courtship ritual before they mate (Slater, 1987). Many mammals, both male and female often use “olfactory displays”, or expose, flaunt or spray scents at prospective mating partners (Vandenbergh, 1983).
Social Interactions That Animals Express
Social Behaviors
Social behavior is a very important aspect of Ethology. A change in an animals social environment can affect ovulation, synchronize menstrual cycles or even induce miscarriages (Encarta, 2000). Even primates have a dominant hierarchy within social groups. The elder males of