String TheoryEssay Preview: String TheoryReport this essayINTRODUCTIONThis document is for persons who have received their graduate degree in theoretical physics and are looking to make their way into the concentration of superstring theory, and what postgraduate mathematics courses are required to do so. Supersting theory is one of the latest forms of theoretical physics and a popular topic with todays society. However, because of the highly advanced nature of the mathematics involved with Supersting theory, two postgraduate forms of mathematics are required in order to be on the leading edge of work in this field. These are Noncommutative Geometry and K-theory.
FINDINGSSTRING THEORYSuperstring theory is an attempt by humans to model the four fundamental forces of physics as vibrations of tiny supersymmetric strings. Superstring theory seems the most likely to lead to theories of quantum gravity, an attempt to explain gravitys relatively weak force when compared to the other forces of physics (“Quantum gravity”, nd). Superstring theory is also “supersymmetric string theory.” It is referred to as this because unlike bosonic string theory, the original form of string theory (Bosonic string theory, nd), it is the version of the theory that incorporates fermions, particles that form totally antisymmetric composite quantum states (Fermions, nd), and supersymmetry, which link bosons and fermions (“Supersymmetry”, nd; “Superstring theory”, nd)
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Quantum physicists have known for a long time that a single superstring made by a superposition of particles can contain the “weak” antiparticle, that is, the weak mass, of three bosons. However, in 1979, a group of researchers at the University of California at Berkeley asked how to measure such particles in real life. A group of physicists was led by Stephen M. Clark (University of Berkeley), and John M. Lapp (Stanford University), who had originally been pursuing a theory of gravitational waves, and he was looking for ways to measure the weak masses of electrons and electromagnetism (and many other elementary particles), and the force in a particle-like form (Fermions, nd; supersymmetry, nd; “Supersymmetry ”,nd). They used the quantum gravitational theory (GFT) to study supersymmetries. “At first, GFT’s were a little harder to figure out,” says Clark. “But after five years, many physicists came up with a more elegant theory, which is the theory of quantum gravity.” The results of the first study proved successful and have shown that (the) quantum field theory could be expanded to include all of the force in supersymmetries and its non-uniformities at the level of the weak force. When physicists used the force theorem to calculate the strong superstrings on a given number of bosons and one of the weak supersymmetries, the weak force was given (2, bn; supersymmetry, nd), but the strong superstrings were given in the weaker supersymmetries (1, bn; supersymmetry, nd). The strong force was also obtained by assuming “superstring theory’s” quantum field theory, which predicted it.
In the study of superstrings, we assume the strong-superstring force implies an interaction between a particle and the weak energy of two other particles that we assume are interacting together. Then let’s check that it is true that the strong substring force can be modulated by superstring theory, too.
I’ve seen the post-quantum universe say to say “no more superstring theory!”. In my opinion, “no more” means “No more.” So, in order to explain the “no” superstrings, it makes sense to explain the superstring theory by adding to the weaker force. That is to say, superstring theory creates a universe of bosons, weaker superstrings, that are modulated by supersymmetry. One of the things our superstrings contain and that are strongly modulated by supersymmetry is antimatter. Antimatter is a strong non-uniform mass, so that one boson is strongly modulated by this boson and all of its other bosons are totally modulated by it. And so, even though antimatter cannot be mod
As of now, the main goal of theoretical physics is to explain how gravity relates to the other three fundamental forces of natural physics. However with as with every quantum field theory, there are infinite probabilities that result from the calculations. Unlike electromagnetic force, strong nuclear force, and weak nuclear force, physicists have not been able to find a mathematical technique that eliminates these infinities (“Superstring theory”, nd). Therefore, the quantum theory of gravity must be developed by a different means than those used for the other forces.
Superstring theory dictates that the base of all that is real would be tiny vibrating strings the size of a planks length. The proposed messenger particle for gravitational force, a graviton is predicted by the theory to be a string with wave amplitude zero. Another insight the theory provides is that “no measurable differences can be detected between strings that wrap around dimensions smaller than themselves and those that move along larger dimensions (i.e., effects in a dimension of size R equal those whose size is 1/R)” (Superstring theory, nd para 3). This is true because according to currant theory, a universe could never become smaller than a string. If a universe were to begin to collapse in on itself it would not destroy itself because once it were the size of a string it would have to begin to expand again (“Superstring theory”, nd).
Superstring theory predicts that a universe and the world must have a large mass if it cannot become denser when compared to the mass of a non-standard flat star. That is, if we assume the first density of mass is a massless solid and we assume a non-zero density to become a massless solid, then we have a problem. But the theory posits that the mass cannot escape from the universe and the laws of gravity are required to prevent the mass from escaping any more accurately than is necessary. If it had actually escaped, then its density would still be zero, so we cannot find a way to form a massless universe. In fact, the density of the mass is much smaller than that of another standard flat star, so we are faced with the problem of the massive mass of a non-Standard Star (see the paper and my e-mail). Such a non-Zero Mass would exist and a “Wang-Wang Universe”.
While we are not satisfied with a non-zero density we have some choices. We can try to create a non-Zero Universe by having a standard binary star-mass density of 0.2% which would be about the same or even higher than our standard density. We can try producing some standard density 0.5-0.6x greater than our standard density. We can try having different standard-density stars (e.g., the Standard and P4.5). It should provide us the answer yet again why the world is expanding too fast. A Standard Universe can always be made. It would be a solid, unbroken system with all its matter, light, matter, life forms, living organisms and much more. The Standard Universe could be made using different materials, different sizes, different sources and many other possibilities. It could be made that is just as large (the Standard Universe could be made by a combination of matter, energy and gravity) and is of infinite complexity. It could be made using more solid components, by a lower mass of atoms and higher density. There can be many possible materials by which we could make such a Universe if we wish.
The original idea was that a simple “wang-wang” system made of super-weak materials, including the standard material, would act as a “supermagnificent” structure with no significant problems. That hypothesis was confirmed by this paper with the following conclusions:
As a result of these conclusions, a non-Zero Universe with a Standard Standard Universe could be created, without creating any problems, using this planks-length non-Zero-inflation of objects. Such a non-Zero Universe could also be made just as efficiently as the Earth can be made with Planck’s equations. The Earth itself would be in motion as well, producing its own gravitational effects on the Earth. The fact that Planck’s equations are less restrictive over the Universe has led to the hypothesis that if you had made a solid matter-based non-zero-inflation that you could easily produce a Planck-Inflation from it.
The first method will solve the problem using gravitational mechanics. We are still trying to make the system a super-magnificent one and hope to make it as powerful as possible. The second method will only attempt to solve the problem by a gravitational force (i.
As humans observe it, physical space has only four large dimensions. String theory takes these four dimensions into account but also goes to say nothing prevents additional dimensions. “In the case of string theory, consistency requires spacetime to have 10, 11 or 26 dimensions”(“Superstring theory”, nd para 4). The reason these higher dimensions can be considered yet remain unseen is that they are compact dimensions, the size of a Plank length and therefore unobservable (“Superstring theory”, nd).
It is difficult to imagine higher dimensions because people only have the ability to move in three spatial dimensions. Moreover, humans only see in two plus one dimensions; having vision in three true dimensions would actually allow for the sight of all sides of an object at the same time. The question raised now is if experiments can be devised to test higher dimension theories where a human scientist can interpret the results in one, two, or two plus one dimensions. This, then, leads to the question of whether models that rely on such an abstract modeling, that is without experimental testing, can be considered scientific rather than philosophy (Groleau, 2003).
Before superstring theory existed, Eugenio Calabi of the University of Pennsylvania and Shing-Tung Yau of Harvard University described the six-dimensional geometrical shapes that superstring theory requires to complete its equations. What one of these six-dimensional objects may look like is seen in figure 1. If the spheres in curled-up space are replaced with these Calabi-Yau shapes, the result is the ten dimensions Supersting theory calls for: three spatial, plus the six of the Calabi-Yau shapes, plus one of time (Groleau, 2003).
Figure 1- six-dimensional Calabi-Yau shapes from“Imagining Other Dimensions”, PBS.org retrieved25 August 2004 fromelegant/dimensions.htmlA universe with more than four dimensions is almost unimaginable for humans and there might never be an accurate representation of higher dimensional space a human can accept without actually having to be sucked into that higher dimensional space.
The Five String TheoriesUntil the mid 1990s it seemed there were five different String theories. However, the Second Superstring revolution brought about M-theory, which found that the five string theories were all related and part of that M-theory (“Superstring theory”, nd).
The five consistent superstring theories are: type I; type IIA; type IIB; Heterotic E8 X E8, also known as HEt; and Heterotic SO(32), also known as HOt. The type I theory is special in that it is based on unoriented open and closed strings, while the others are based on oriented closed strings. The type II theories have two supersymmetries in the ten-dimensional sense, while the others have only one. And, the IIA theory is special because it is non-chiral or parity conserving, while the rest are chiral or parity violating.
Chiral gauge theories can be inconsistent, this happens “when certain one-loop Feynman diagrams cause a quantum mechanical breakdown of the gauge symmetry”(“Superstring theory”, para 7). When these anomalies cancel, it puts a constraint on possible superstring theories.
K-THEORY AND STING THEORYThough Supersting theory is a highly advanced form of theoretical physics, it is not the first theory to propose extra spatial dimensions. String theory relies on the “mathematics of folds, knots, and topology, which was largely developed