Basics of Psychology
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Biological bases of behavior
Students should recognize biological psychology as a perspective of psychology. Specifically, students should recognize:
The organization of the nervous system into the CNS and PNS:
The Central Nervous System-CNS- Brain and Spinal Cord. The Peripheral Nervous System-PNS- are the Nerves outside of the brain and spinal cord.
The structure and functions of neurons:
Neurons are the basic building blocks of the nervous system. The human central nervous system contains about 100 billion neurons. Neurons have a communicative role in the nervous system. Neurons can receive, integrate, and transmit information.
How neurotransmitters are related to behavior:
Acetylcholine (Ach) – Activates motor neurons controlling skeletal muscles. Contributes to the regulation of attention, arousal, and memory. Some Ach receptors stimulated by nicotine (the nicotine acts like Ach itself and binds to receptor sites for Ach).
Dopamine (DA) – Contributes to control of voluntary movement, pleasurable emotions. Decreased levels associated with Parkinsons disease. Over activity at DA synapses with schizophrenia. Cocaine and amphetamine elevate activity at DA synapses.
Norephinephrine (NE) – Contributes to modulation of mood and arousal. Cocaine and amphetamines elevate activity at NE synapses.
Serotonin (SHT) – Involved in regulation of sleep and wakefulness, eating, and aggression. Abnormal levels may contribute to depression and OCD. Prozac and Zoloft are antidepressant drugs that affect serotonin.
GABA (gamma-amino butyric acid) – Most common inhibitory NT. Valium and Xanex (also alcohol) are anti-anxiety drugs that work at GABA synapses. GABA appears to be responsible for much of the inhibition in the CNS. GABA contributes to the regulation of anxiety.
The specialized functions of the brains hemisphere: The Hindbrain consists of the medulla, oblongata, pons, and the cerebellum.
The medulla contains 3 vital centers:
Cardiac center- This controls rate and force of the heart beat
Vasomotor center-adjust blood vessel diameter to regulate blood pressure and reroute blood from one part of the body to another.
Respirator centers- control the rate and depth of breathing.
Pons – contains nuclei that relay signals from the cerebrum to the cerebellum. It is concerned with sleep, hearing, equilibrium, taste, eye movement, facial expressions, facial sensations, respirations, swallowing, bladder control and posture.
Cerebellum- mostly concerned with muscular coordination.
Midbrain- Short segment of the brainstem that connects the hindbrain and forebrain.
Reticular Formation- runs vertically through the core of the midbrain, pons, and medulla, it functions modulations of muscle reflexes, breathing, and pain perception; it has an equal role in the regulation of sleep and arousal.
Forebrain- largest and most complex region of the brain. Consist of thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and cerebrum.
Hypothalamus¬- serves as vital link between the brain and the endocrine system. Major role in the regulation of basic biological drives related to survival- fight, flight, food, and sex. Also, controls thirst, hunger, temperature regulation, falling asleep and walking, memory and emotional behavior (anger, aggression, fear, pleasure, contentment, and sex drive).
Limbic- involved in the regulation of emotion, memory, and motivation.
Cerebrum- Largest and most complex part of the human brain, responsible for the most complex mental activities, including learning, remembering, thinking, and consciousness itself.
It is divided into 2 hemispheres – right and left. The two hemispheres are connected by the corpus callosum.
Each cerebral hemisphere is divided into 4 lobes: Frontal, Parietal, Temporal, and Occipital. Furthermore, each lobe is dedicated to specific purposes.
Frontal Lobe – forehead – concerned with voluntary motor functions, motivation, foresight, planning, memory, mood, emotion, social judgment, and aggression (called primary motor cortex)
Temporal Lobe – sides of the head- concerned with hearing, smell, learning, memory, visual recognition, and emotional behavior. (Called primary auditory cortex)
Partial Lobe -both sides- top of head- This lobe is concerned with the sensory reception and integration of somesthic (touch), taste, and some visual information. (Called primary somatosensory cortex)
Occipital Lobe- in the back on the head- principle visual center of the brain called the visual cortex.
Cerebral Lateralization:
The difference in the function of the two hemispheres. One hemisphere, usually the left, is called the categorical hemisphere. Specialized for spoken and written language and for the sequential and analytical reasoning employed in such fields as science and math. Brocas area- important role in the production of speech. Werniches area- comprehension of language.
The other hemisphere, usually the right is called the representational hemisphere. It is the seat of imagination and insight, musical and artistic skill, perception of patterns and spatial relationship, and comparison of sights, sounds, smells, and tastes.
Cerebral lateralization is highly correlation with handedness. 91% of Americans are right handed. The left hemisphere is the categorical one in 96% of the people are right hemisphere is 4%. Among left-handed people, the right hemisphere is categorical in 15%, the left hemisphere in 70
Darwins key insights that represents the essence of evolution:
What Darwin contributed in his landmark book, The Origin of Species, was a creative new explanation for how and why evolutionary changes unfolded over time. He identified natural selection as the mechanism that orchestrates the process of evolution. First, he noted that organisms vary in endless ways such as size, speed, strength, aspects