BARRIERS AFFECTING THE FIGHT AGAINST FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION
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Introduction
The practice of female genital mutilation (FGM) in England has been illegal since 1985 when the act prohibiting female circumcision was passed (Townley, 2014). However, approximately 65,000 girls are at risk of mutilation as the country continues to grapple with the challenges of the vice (McCauley and van den Broek, 2018). FGM involves the full or partial removal of the external female genitalia with no medical benefits (Royal College of Midwives, 2013). Besides, it not only lacks a direct relation to religion but also viewed as a social norm. For instance, people who practice FGM believe that it prevents promiscuity and preserves the purity of women. The challenge of prosecuting such cases was highlighted in 2018 when two suspects were presented in court, and eventually acquited (McCauley and van den Broek, 2018). Legislation passed in the UK provides that those found to have committed the crime receive a prison sentence not exceeding 14years (Townley, 2014). Such a sentence can be argued to be lenient because of the negative impacts of the practice. For example, FGM leads to long-term emotional and physical effects on the lives of girls and women (Royal College of Midwives, 2013). Also, FGM violates the rights of the child’s entitlement to the integrity of her body. Therefore, those who enforce the vice on young girls violate the trust the children give them for protection (Royal College of Midwives, 2013). Besides, those who practice female genital mutilation are mainly members of the extended family and the parents (Townley, 2014). Apart from emotional consequences, the practice might lead to death, physical harm and disability on the children. Despite cases of FGM still being reported in England, the country is a signatory to the United Nation’s conventions on the protection of children rights (Townley, 2014). This paper aims at highlighting the barriers within organizations, professions, and culture that affect the fight against female genital mutilation in the United Kingdom and how they are linked to other relevant health theories.
Firstly, cultural believes of various communities including those in the Middle East, Asia and Africa view FGM as an integral part of their tradition. Such countries present a critical challenge in the implementation of sexual and reproductive rights of women (Monahan, 2009). The problem primarily arises from cultural restrictions due to their traditional beliefs (Costello, 2015). It is difficult to convince people who have committed the vice for centuries to abandon it because of health concerns. The reason for the practice in the communities varies from family honor and religious justification to social acceptance (Monahan, 2009). In this instance, those who practice the vice believe that they are honoring their tradition and those demonizing their actions are outsiders (Costello, 2015). Such beliefs present a grave challenge to those seeking to protect and safeguard women from FGM. Most of the perpetrators of the crime do not believe that their actions are wrong but should be accepted because they are embedded in their culture (Monahan, 2009). However, while FGM activists aim at protecting women and encouraging the perpetrators of the crime most culprits are women (Monahan, 2009). Cultural barriers in the fight against female genital mutilation are closely linked to the social models of health theory (Cislaghi and Heise, 2018). In this instance, FGM is practiced in various socio-economic groups with the support of fathers, mothers, and community leaders (Cislaghi and Heise, 2018). Besides, it is seen as an essential aspect of the cultural identity of a woman in various communities. Communities that practice FGM do so due to their strict social conventions that include social and psycho-sexual reasons (Cislaghi and Heise, 2018). For example, the practice is aimed at maintaining family honor and controlling the sexuality of women. It is critical for the agencies to change the social norms to solve the cultural barriers in the fight against the mutilation (Cislaghi and Heise, 2018). If they fail to improve the social standards, it will be difficult to protect the health of young girls because of the social demands of their culture.
Social norms in various communities are built under the expectations of their community. Therefore, if one belongs to a community that traditionally practiced female genital mutilation, the person will feel obligated to commit the offense. Also, most people are influenced by what others in their community will think about them (Cislaghi and Heise, 2018). In this instance, they will seek to maintain a favorable opinion and avoid negative opinions from their community. Social influence, therefore, plays a critical role in eradicating FGM and safeguarding the children (Cislaghi and Heise, 2018). It is, therefore, accurate to argue that FGM is a social norm that is mostly enforced through pressure exerted by the communities. Failure to conform to the demands of the society can lead to ostracism, social exclusion, and violence against an individual or a family (Cislaghi and Heise, 2018). Thus, cultural beliefs negatively affect the fight against FGM mainly due to the harmful social norms that exist in some of the communities. In the UK, the practice occurs in secrecy mostly at the homes of the women while others move abroad to undergoes the procedure (Royal College of Midwives, 2013). Also, in the UK FGM occurs mostly among the migrants who are staunch followers of their tradition (Monahan, 2009). When perpetrators receive recommendations to report the offenders, they view the calls as an insult and assault to their values and norms (Costello, 2015). Such migrants are mainly from Asian, Middle Eastern and African countries making it essential to create awareness among such migrants on the impacts of FGM on women’s health (Monahan, 2009). In essence, Cultural beliefs and values present a significant barrier in the protection of women and the prosecution of those who practice FGM.
Secondly, health professions such as nurses and teachers need adequate training and understanding of the laws surrounding FGM. Few training programs in the health sector address the issues of FGM including how to treat and recognize the vice (Royal College of Midwives, 2013). In this instance, most programs focus on how to prevent the practice and not how to care for the survivors. Besides, most health professionals are reluctant in addressing the vice because they believe that it is not in their place to discuss the social norms associated with the practice (Evans et al., 2017). While some of the health professionals use strategies that encompass social norms to improve healthcare they overlook other factors that inform the decisions of people (Simpson et al., 2012). They use the theories of social norms but fail to appreciate the place occupied by the standards. Research by scholars indicates that the social patterns of individuals alter the health practices of people (Cislaghi and Heise, 2018). Therefore, to safeguard children from undergoing mutilation, it is essential for professionals to address the social norms in the community. Another important aspect is that health professionals have higher chances of identifying those at risk of undergoing FGM and should, therefore, have knowledge in dealing with such cases (Evans et al., 2017). However, even if they receive adequate training on how to handle mutilation related matters, there is a challenge of health inequality. Most communities from Africa, the Middle East, and Asia give distinct roles to men, girls, women, and boys of varying ages (Royal College of Midwives, 2013). The different positions in the communities give rise to inequalities in the access and use of healthcare necessities (Simpson et al., 2012). For instance, women are prevented from receiving adequate healthcare due to the religious and cultural norms in their community (Cislaghi and Heise, 2018). Therefore, it is difficult for health professionals to access women and girls who undergo FGM due to the cultural restrictions arising from health inequality (Simpson et al., 2012). In this instance, those who suffer mutilation are usually barred by their communities from accessing healthcare to conceal the crime. In essence, the lack of proper training of health professionals and health inequalities in the UK present a challenge in safeguarding children from FGM.
Lastly, the government of the UK faces organization barriers in reporting, investigation, and prosecution of FGM cases. Few convictions have been reported in the European Union despite individual states formulating legislations (Adetunji, 2018). Besides, conflicting arguments exists among authorities in the United Kingdom on whether the legislation is sufficient in deterring the vice (Gangoli et al., 2018). Also, the lack of prosecution in the country creates a sense in the communities practicing FGM that it is unlikely for them to be punished. Lack of sentencing of criminals of the vice in the country is primarily associated with collusion with local communities, lack of political will and the stigma faced by the victims (Gangoli et al., 2018). Organizations within the United Kingdom present a challenge due to their failure to address inequalities in some of the communities. Social deprivation and economic differences affect early childhood development leading to social disadvantages in the lives of the female child (Adetunji, 2018). In this instance, the government and other organizations in the United Kingdom fail to recognize the link between inequalities and prevalence of FGM (Gangoli et al., 2018). In this instance, most communities from Africa, the Middle East, and Asia give distinct roles to men, girls, women, and boys of varying ages (Royal College of Midwives, 2013). For instance, women are prevented from receiving adequate healthcare due to the religious and cultural norms in their community (Cislaghi and Heise, 2018). Therefore, the government and non-government institutions should invest in educating citizens in the disadvantaged regions about FGM (Adetunji, 2018). Also, such issues within the organizations, therefore, present a challenge in the punishments of the perpetrators of FGM. Besides, some of the survivors of FGM distrust the local authorities including the police officers because of the perception that their communities are the target (HM Inspectorate of Constabulary, 2015). Lack of public awareness due to organizational and institutional failure, therefore, creates a barrier in the fight against female genital mutilation.
Ultimately, the United Kingdom faces cultural, institutional and organizational barriers in its fight against FGM. Cultural believes of various communities including those in the Middle East, Asia and Africa view FGM as an integral part of their tradition. It is difficult to convince people who have committed the vice for centuries to abandon it because of health concerns. The reason for the practice in the communities varies from family honor and religious justification to social acceptance (Monahan, 2009). Cultural barriers in the fight against female genital mutilation are closely linked to the social models of health theory (Cislaghi and Heise, 2018). In this instance, it is practiced in various socio-economic groups with the support of fathers, mothers, and community leaders (Cislaghi and Heise, 2018). Secondly, health professions such as nurses and teachers need adequate training and understanding of the laws surrounding FGM. Few training programs in the health sector address the issues of FGM including how to treat and recognize the vice (Royal College of Midwives, 2013). While some of the health professionals use strategies that encompass social norms to improve healthcare they overlook other factors that inform the decisions of people (Simpson et al., 2012). They use the theories of social norms but fail to appreciate the place occupied by the standards. Research by scholars indicates that the social patterns of individuals alter the health practices of people (Cislaghi and Heise, 2018). Therefore, to safeguard children from undergoing mutilation, it is crucial for professionals to address the social norms in the community. Lastly, organizations within the United Kingdom present a challenge due to their failure to address inequalities in some of the cities. Social deprivation and economic differences affect early childhood development leading to social disadvantages in the lives of the female child (Adetunji, 2018). In this instance, the government and other organizations in the United Kingdom fail to recognize the link between inequalities and prevalence of FGM (Gangoli et al., 2018). Lack of public awareness due to organizational and institutional failure, therefore, creates a barrier in the fight against female genital mutilation.
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