United States Use And Exploitation Of Terrain And Geography In Combat Operations
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One of the first considerations that all commanders must have when planning and conducting
combat operations throughout history are the geographical landscape of the battle space. Throughout
US history the geography that soldiers found themselves fighting in, has dictated not only the tactics,
but most often the final outcome of engagements. The US has found itself in almost every type of
terrain and climate zone, in almost every region of the globe. Initially the US only dealt with terrain in
the continental United States until the Spanish American War, after this the United States found itself
the major power in the Western Hemisphere. As the United States became a global power it found itself
sending troops throughout the world to protect its interests.
From the American Revolution (1775-1783) until the Spanish American War (1898) the US Army in
its many incarnations found itself engaged in conflicts confined to Northern America. Initially these
conflicts focused their operations East of the Appalachian mountain chain. While seeking independence
The rebelling colonials used terrain to great affect against the more traditional forces of King James I,
who insisted on following Napoleonic tactics of
line formations to mass fire on the enemy. The
colonists instead chose to hide behind natural
terrain, i.e. trees, small depressions, and rock
formations, and trench works to counter the
superior numbers of the English army. The
most classic example of using terrain to
advantage at this time was the Battle of Bunker
Hill, in which a numerically inferior force of
colonials defeated a much larger force of
British regular army by attaining and holding higher ground (Breeds Hill). 1 When the British attempted to climb the hill they were unable to use the tactics that they were drilled in, as the terrain
prevented large formations, or to form solid ranks. With the inability to adapt to the terrain used by the
enemy a larger force was ultimately defeated.2
In the US Civil War (1861-1865) the Union and Confederate forces used the same tactics as most
officers, on both sides, were taught at the US Military Academy at West Point. This war eventually was
a matter of taking and controlling of choke points. After numerous attempts by both sides to fight in a
conventional “field of battle” war — leaving civilian areas inviolate to combat, it was found that this had
lead to a virtual stalemate.3 Once Union forces
began to besiege and take over strategic cities of
the Confederacy the ability of the southern states
to sustain the war effort was severed. The seizure
of ; Chattanooga, TN , Atlanta, GA, and
Vicksburg. MS, caused the south to be unable to
ship troops and material by boat or train. Due to
the loss of these critical choke points the south
found itself in an untenable situation. For while
they had lost these cities, they also were blocked from international shipping routes due to the Union
naval blockade of all southern ports. The loss of movement coupled with the tactical and economic
strangulation at sea, the south could not sustain its war effort. 4
The Spanish American War which lasted from April 1898 until December 1898 with the Treaty of
Paris, was the United States first conflicts that were
not on U.S. soil. The island nations of Cuba and the
Philippines would be where this war was fought. The
US was not prepared to conduct operations in these
tropical environments. The US Army wore heavy
cotton uniforms and due to the constraints of ships
available, the most powerful force the US could bring
to bear – the Calvary, could not bring horses except those of officers. The most famous action of this
war was “The Battle of San Juan Hill” outside Santiago, Cuba, was a near defeat for US forces. The
Spanish forces held higher ground and a reinforced position atop San Juan Hill with only 750 soldiers,
while US forces numbering near 5,000 strong used the limited advantage they had. The hill had a major
flaw in that the defensive walls were set back atop the hill plateau meaning US forces would not be
subject to directed enemy fire while climbing the majority of the hill.5 Most US casualties were not
from enemy fire, but from malaria and dysentery, as none