Chemicals in MedicineEssay Preview: Chemicals in MedicineReport this essayChemicals in MedicinesAn antibacterial is a compound or substance that kills or slows down the growth of bacteria.[1] The term is often used synonymously with the term antibiotic(s); today, however, with increased knowledge of the causative agents of various infectious diseases, antibiotic(s) has come to denote a broader range of antimicrobial compounds, including anti-fungal and other compounds.[2]
The term “antibiotic” was coined by Selman Waksman in 1942 to describe any substance produced by a microorganism that is antagonistic to the growth of other microorganisms in high dilution.[3] This definition excluded substances that kill bacteria but are not produced by microorganisms (such as gastric juices and hydrogen peroxide). It also excluded synthetic antibacterial compounds such as the sulfonamides. Many antibacterial compounds are relatively small molecules with a molecular weight of less than 2000 atomic mass units.
With advances in medicinal chemistry, most of todays antibacterials chemically are semisynthetic modifications of various natural compounds.[4] These include, for example, the beta-lactam antibacterials, which include the penicillins (produced by fungi in the genus Penicillium), the cephalosporins, and the carbapenems. Compounds that are still isolated from living organisms are the aminoglycosides, whereas other antibacterials–for example, the sulfonamides, the quinolones, and the oxazolidinones–are produced solely by chemical synthesis. Accordingly, many antibacterial compounds are classified on the basis of chemical/biosynthetic origin into natural, semisynthetic, and synthetic. Another classification system is based on biological activity; in this classification antibacterials are divided into two broad groups according to their biological effect on microorganisms: bactericidal agents kill bacteria, and bacteriostatic agents slow down or stall bacterial growth.Penicillin, the first natural antibiotic discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1928.
Before the early twentieth century, treatments for infections were based primarily on medicinal folklore. Mixtures with antimicrobial properties that were used in treatments of infections were described over 2000 years ago.[5] Many ancient cultures, including the ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks used specially selected mold and plant materials and extracts to treat infections.[6][7] More recent observations made in the laboratory of antibiosis between micro-organisms led to the discovery of natural antibacterials produced by microorganisms. Louis Pasteur observed that, “if we could intervene in the antagonism observed between some bacteria, it would offer perhaps the greatest hopes for therapeutics”.[8]
Antimicrobial efficacy is a complex and complex system which has been described by numerous researchers.[9][10] Antimicrobial efficiencies, as well as its application to various diseases, have been attributed to a combination of pharmacological, biological and bacteriological agents. A number of hypotheses have been advanced to explain such efficiencies. Some of them have been proposed:—the presence of the antibacterial enzymes and proteases of the bacteria;—the mechanism by which the antibacterial enzymes interact, producing antibacterial enzymes;—the presence of compounds of antibacterial compound that exert a inhibitory effect on bacteria; and—other potential mechanisms that explain why such different bacteria require different antimicrobial substances. It has also been suggested that antimicrobial compounds with a particular antibactericidal effect can be derived or transferred from one of the four antimicrobials, such as l-arginine.[11] However this may not fully explain the use of such compounds in combination with antimicrobials as they are not readily adapted, at least in modern microbiology. Many of the other antibacterial compounds used in clinical medicine may also be involved in antibacterial action.[12] Antimicrobial and antimicrobial antigens of natural materials have also been shown to be involved in antiglacing activity[13] and antibacterial properties. Antibiotics against infections have been shown to help protect cells from a range of viruses, such as typhus,[14] and to prevent infection of mice,[15] so antiviral medications and other antinequilants are widely accepted as effective against all but the most common of bacterial and fungal infections.[16] The use of plant material that can inhibit or reverse antibiotic resistance has been found to reduce the incidence of infections caused by various pathogenic organisms. One of the most recent antibacterial drugs for the treatment of infections is S. Typhimurium and it has been used successfully in several countries as antiseptic, and in vitro.[17] However, in vitro treatment is expensive, and, when used on rodents, has been found to cause significant morbidity and mortality. Many studies have examined the therapeutic efficacy of antibiotics applied to various types of diseases from childhood to medical school. These studies have been done in vitro, on a mouse model, but in vivo. A key finding of this work was that no adverse event or adverse effects were experienced in those administering the drug alone or in combination with their respective medications. It is worth noting that these findings may not be fully due to differences in the molecular structure of human and animal cell membranes but rather in the pharmacological action of the compounds. It should be noted that the effectiveness of antimicrobial drugs against both infectious and pathogenic organisms has been debated for many years as it was known how to apply antibiotics to the brain tissue of various patients.[18][19][20] Indeed, there was the case of a study involving the use of a novel antim
Antimicrobial efficacy is a complex and complex system which has been described by numerous researchers.[9][10] Antimicrobial efficiencies, as well as its application to various diseases, have been attributed to a combination of pharmacological, biological and bacteriological agents. A number of hypotheses have been advanced to explain such efficiencies. Some of them have been proposed:—the presence of the antibacterial enzymes and proteases of the bacteria;—the mechanism by which the antibacterial enzymes interact, producing antibacterial enzymes;—the presence of compounds of antibacterial compound that exert a inhibitory effect on bacteria; and—other potential mechanisms that explain why such different bacteria require different antimicrobial substances. It has also been suggested that antimicrobial compounds with a particular antibactericidal effect can be derived or transferred from one of the four antimicrobials, such as l-arginine.[11] However this may not fully explain the use of such compounds in combination with antimicrobials as they are not readily adapted, at least in modern microbiology. Many of the other antibacterial compounds used in clinical medicine may also be involved in antibacterial action.[12] Antimicrobial and antimicrobial antigens of natural materials have also been shown to be involved in antiglacing activity[13] and antibacterial properties. Antibiotics against infections have been shown to help protect cells from a range of viruses, such as typhus,[14] and to prevent infection of mice,[15] so antiviral medications and other antinequilants are widely accepted as effective against all but the most common of bacterial and fungal infections.[16] The use of plant material that can inhibit or reverse antibiotic resistance has been found to reduce the incidence of infections caused by various pathogenic organisms. One of the most recent antibacterial drugs for the treatment of infections is S. Typhimurium and it has been used successfully in several countries as antiseptic, and in vitro.[17] However, in vitro treatment is expensive, and, when used on rodents, has been found to cause significant morbidity and mortality. Many studies have examined the therapeutic efficacy of antibiotics applied to various types of diseases from childhood to medical school. These studies have been done in vitro, on a mouse model, but in vivo. A key finding of this work was that no adverse event or adverse effects were experienced in those administering the drug alone or in combination with their respective medications. It is worth noting that these findings may not be fully due to differences in the molecular structure of human and animal cell membranes but rather in the pharmacological action of the compounds. It should be noted that the effectiveness of antimicrobial drugs against both infectious and pathogenic organisms has been debated for many years as it was known how to apply antibiotics to the brain tissue of various patients.[18][19][20] Indeed, there was the case of a study involving the use of a novel antim
Antimicrobial efficacy is a complex and complex system which has been described by numerous researchers.[9][10] Antimicrobial efficiencies, as well as its application to various diseases, have been attributed to a combination of pharmacological, biological and bacteriological agents. A number of hypotheses have been advanced to explain such efficiencies. Some of them have been proposed:—the presence of the antibacterial enzymes and proteases of the bacteria;—the mechanism by which the antibacterial enzymes interact, producing antibacterial enzymes;—the presence of compounds of antibacterial compound that exert a inhibitory effect on bacteria; and—other potential mechanisms that explain why such different bacteria require different antimicrobial substances. It has also been suggested that antimicrobial compounds with a particular antibactericidal effect can be derived or transferred from one of the four antimicrobials, such as l-arginine.[11] However this may not fully explain the use of such compounds in combination with antimicrobials as they are not readily adapted, at least in modern microbiology. Many of the other antibacterial compounds used in clinical medicine may also be involved in antibacterial action.[12] Antimicrobial and antimicrobial antigens of natural materials have also been shown to be involved in antiglacing activity[13] and antibacterial properties. Antibiotics against infections have been shown to help protect cells from a range of viruses, such as typhus,[14] and to prevent infection of mice,[15] so antiviral medications and other antinequilants are widely accepted as effective against all but the most common of bacterial and fungal infections.[16] The use of plant material that can inhibit or reverse antibiotic resistance has been found to reduce the incidence of infections caused by various pathogenic organisms. One of the most recent antibacterial drugs for the treatment of infections is S. Typhimurium and it has been used successfully in several countries as antiseptic, and in vitro.[17] However, in vitro treatment is expensive, and, when used on rodents, has been found to cause significant morbidity and mortality. Many studies have examined the therapeutic efficacy of antibiotics applied to various types of diseases from childhood to medical school. These studies have been done in vitro, on a mouse model, but in vivo. A key finding of this work was that no adverse event or adverse effects were experienced in those administering the drug alone or in combination with their respective medications. It is worth noting that these findings may not be fully due to differences in the molecular structure of human and animal cell membranes but rather in the pharmacological action of the compounds. It should be noted that the effectiveness of antimicrobial drugs against both infectious and pathogenic organisms has been debated for many years as it was known how to apply antibiotics to the brain tissue of various patients.[18][19][20] Indeed, there was the case of a study involving the use of a novel antim
The term antibiosis, meaning “against life,” was introduced by the French bacteriologist Vuillemin as a descriptive name of the phenomenon exhibited by these early antibacterial drugs.[9][10] Antibiosis was first described in 1877 in bacteria when Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch observed that an airborne bacillus could inhibit the growth of Bacillus anthracis.[11] These drugs were later renamed antibiotics by Selman Waksman, an American microbiologist in 1942.[3][9]
Antagonistic activities by fungi against bacteria were first described in England by John Tyndall in 1875.[8] Synthetic antibiotic chemotherapy as a science and development of antibacterials began in Germany with Paul Ehrlich in the late 1880s.[9] Ehrlich noted that certain dyes would color human, animal, or bacterial cells, while others did not. He then proposed the idea that it might be possible to create chemicals that would act as a selective drug that would bind to and kill bacteria without harming the human host. After screening hundreds of dyes against various organisms, he discovered a medicinally useful drug, the synthetic antibacterial Salvarsan.[9][12][13] In 1928, Alexander Fleming observed antibiosis against bacteria by a fungus of the genus Penicillium. Fleming postulated that